Ornella Ostapenko, 2023
The globalization of the twentieth century gave rise to both great hope and great fear. Hope for a global architecture of peace and a great fear that these processes would absorb and destroy national and local cultures. Both predictions did not come true. The architecture of peace has proven to be unreliable. The world is struggling with the largest food* and ecological** crises since World War II, while national and personal identities are moving to a new formation level.
The war has forced more than 10 million Ukrainians to leave their homes. This is the most significant population displacement in the 21st century. Each of them carries a piece of Ukrainian culture within them and encounters the "other" every day. In response, this can cause fear of the "other" in those who receive them. Fear of refugees from previous wars and hybrid conflicts has stimulated the growth of conservative movements in Europe. However, like stars, cultures have collided to create new worlds and complement each other. This is both inspiring and alarming for the future.
The author conducted a study to look into the future and identified 12 most essential encounters in Ukrainian history. The 12 graphic icons symbolize the 12 crossroads of Ukrainian culture with other cultures and religions: geographically, Ukraine is at the crossroads of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Islamic worlds. All 12 crossroads are simultaneously points of enrichment of world culture and stepping stones to forming a modern Ukrainian identity. They belong equally to Ukrainians and to the world.
Each drawing is based on an architectural plan of iconic historical buildings. Visual symbols of the era are layered on this base: typical patterns, fonts, compositional techniques, and images.
*According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in the 2019/2020 marketing year, Ukraine ranked 2nd in barley supplies, 4th in corn, and 5th in wheat among the largest grain exporters.
**As of April 2023, 174 thousand square kilometers of Ukraine's territory are potentially contaminated with explosive ordnance. This area is 4 times the size of Switzerland, or 2 times the size of Austria, or 2/3 of Italy.
The Trypillia culture, also known as the culture of painted ceramics, flourished during the Neolithic period. Spanning a vast territory of approximately 190,000 square kilometers across modern-day Ukraine, Romania, and Moldova, it left a significant historical footprint. The primary occupation of the Trypillians was agriculture, and by studying ancient artifacts and architectural remains, we can gain insights into their way of life. One distinguishing characteristic of Trypillian architecture was the presence of two-story houses. These dwellings were characterized by their considerable size, with the first floor serving utilitarian purposes and the second floor designated for living quarters. Trypillian house models showcased a distinct and unconventional design, standing on four legs. Trypillian settlements were organized following a radial principle, with the community at the center. The Trypillians occupied a pivotal position, denoted as "point zero," symbolizing their existence before encounters with external cultures. This concept is embodied in an icon inspired by the layout of a Trypillian settlement, intricately woven with the rhythmic patterns unique to this civilization. The central focus of the icon comprises four interconnected figures, symbolizing the intergenerational connections within the Trypillian community.
This historical juncture is well-documented primarily through the accounts provided by Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian. His narratives serve as the main source for understanding the Scythians, encompassing their lifestyle, customs, and language. Drawing from these depictions, scholars have inferred that the Scythians belonged to Iranian tribes. Renowned as nomadic warriors, the Scythians possessed sophisticated craftsmanship in jewelry and were even adorned with tattoos. Their ornamental pieces often depicted intricate scenes from Scythian life, while the mummified remains revealed distinctive tattoos featuring mythological creatures. Remarkably, Scythian burial mounds, subterranean tombs concealed beneath earthen mounds, have endured to the present day. One such burial site's layout forms the foundation for this representation, adorned with symbolic depictions of bulls, evoking the iconic Scythian pectoral, and the ancient letter "aks" symbolizing a bull, which later evolved into the modern letter "A" in various alphabets.
Even prior to its officially recognized foundation, numerous encounters shaped the territory of modern Kyiv. Archaeological discoveries unveil remnants of the Trypillian culture (4th-5th millennium BC), as well as the presence of the Scythians and Sarmatians (1st century BC). However, the recorded date of Kyiv's establishment is 482 AD. Legend holds that the city was founded by three brothers—Kyia, Schek, and Horiv—and their sister, Lybid. Subsequently, the reign of Oleg, a prince of Scandinavian lineage from 882 to 912, is historically well-documented.
The Dnipro River, the central waterway of Ukraine and the third largest river in Europe served as a critical trade route known as the "Path from the Varangians to the Greeks." (Varangians is a Slavic name for Vikings) This trade route connected Scandinavia with the Mediterranean, traversing the Dnipro River. The depicted imagery draws inspiration from a pagan temple—a sacred site dedicated to the worship and sacrificial rituals devoted to Slavic deities. Traditionally, these temples were oriented towards the cardinal points and the intercardinal directions. Encircling the temple, an inscription in an abstract Vyaz script reminiscent of the ancient Cyrillic used in composing the epic poem of Kievan Rus', "The Tale of Igor's Campaign," along with symbolic allusions to Perun, the principal deity in the Slavic pantheon, can be found.
In the year 988, Prince Volodymyr the Great of Kyiv orchestrated the pivotal baptism of Kyivan Rus, heralding its integration into the realm of Christianity. According to the chronicles, he commanded the dismantling of the idol of Perun, a significant Slavic deity, which was symbolically beaten with sticks and cast into the river. Subsequently, the people of Kyiv underwent a momentous baptism ceremony in the waters of the Dnipro River. In commemoration of this event, Volodymyr erected a new Christian church known as the Church of the Tithes. Unfortunately, only its foundation survived after the invasion of the Golden Horde. The depicted portrayal draws inspiration from the foundation and mosaic artistry of another renowned church, St. Sophia of Kyiv, which remains one of the few extant structures from the Rus era.
The icon displayed within St. Sophia of Kyiv features four symmetrical lambs alongside the silhouette of Mother Oranta—the Virgin Mary as the Protector. These lambs symbolize the innocent sacrifices resulting from the adoption of Christianity, while also alluding to the pagan origins intertwined with the Orthodox rites, which were more attuned to natural cycles. Flanking the Oranta, elegant calligraphic inscriptions in the script proclaim the word "Saints."
Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kyiv earned the notable epithet of being the father-in-law of Europe due to the strategic marriages of his children. Many of his daughters ascended to the status of queens, while his sons wedded European princesses, forging significant alliances. Elizabeth Yaroslavivna (Alisif) became the queen of Norway, first marrying Harald III the Harsh and later King Svein II of Denmark. Anastasia (Agmunda) assumed the role of Queen of Hungary as the wife of King Andras I. Agatha became the wife of King Edward the Exile of England, and Anne, Queen of France, entered into matrimony with King Henry I.
The presented depiction draws inspiration from the architectural plan of the Monastery of St. Vincent in Sanlis (1065), situated north of Paris, which served as the residence of Anne of Kyiv. The plan is embellished with Cyrillic script inscriptions, including the word "Saints," depictions of angels, and a rose—a traditional adornment found in Catholic churches. The utilization of the Cyrillic alphabet in this context stems from the historical fact that Anna and her son Philip signed documents in Cyrillic during their time in France. These signatures stand as some of the oldest surviving examples of the ancient Ukrainian language within the French archives. While Anna briefly acted as a regent under her son's reign, the primary regent was Count Baldwin V of Flanders. Eventually, her son ascended to the throne as King Philip I of France.
Andrii Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgorukiy, the founder of Moscow, is notorious for orchestrating the first devastating sack of Kyiv. Despite being the progeny of his influential father, Andrii Bogolyubsky was denied the throne of Kyiv, prompting him to betray his own kin and launch an assault on the city. Among the spoils seized from ravaged Kyiv, he appropriated an icon of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which currently resides within the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow. According to legend, the reconciliation between Moscow and Kyiv necessitates the return of this revered icon to its rightful place.
It is worth noting that Andrii Bogolyubsky's father, Yuri Dolgorukiy, rests in eternal repose in Kyiv's Church of the Savior on Berestove, located in close proximity to the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (Kyiv Cave Monastery). The architectural plan of this church serves as the foundation for the depicted imagery. The plan is enveloped in individual leaves, symbolizing the splintering of a once-unified family that has diverged along separate paths.
Following this destructive attack, a fierce struggle for the Kyivan throne ensued, ultimately resulting in the decimation of the defensive capabilities of the Rus' lands. In the 13th century, the Mongols launched their assault on Rus', leading to its subjugation under the Golden Horde. Consequently, Kievan Rus ceased to exist as an independent entity, and its territories relinquished their sovereignty.
The Crimean peninsula, with its rich historical tapestry, has attracted numerous invaders throughout the ages. It bears witness to the remnants of Greek colonies, Scythian burial sites, ancient temples carved into the rocks by the Cimmerians and Tauri, as well as Genoese fortresses that have survived to this day. The indigenous people of Crimea are the Crimean Tatars. While ethnic Ukrainians and Crimean Tatars share Scythian ancestry, they differ in religious affiliation. Ukrainians predominantly adhere to the Orthodox faith, while the Tatars follow Islam. Consequently, the historical relationship between these two peoples has been marked by both prolonged wars and alliances.
In the 15th century, Khan Haji I Gerai established the Crimean Khanate, garnering support from Grand Duke Casimir of Lithuania, who was regarded as the heir to the Golden Horde. In 1478, during the reign of his son Mengli I, the khanate recognized the Ottoman Sultan as the caliph of Sunni Muslims. In 1699, under the general supervision of the Muslim Italian Goloppo and with technical assistance from French military engineers, construction began on the Yeni Kale fortress. This new stronghold boasted an irregular trapezoidal shape, with side walls soaring nearly 50 meters high. The depicted icon draws inspiration from the plan of the Yeni Kale fortress, featuring four intertwined towers adorned with intricate Muslim patterns.
The constant trade and political ties with the Tatars exerted a profound influence on the development of Ukrainian (Cossack) fashion, language, and cuisine. Each subsequent historical stage involving Ukraine would invariably entail interactions with the Crimean Tatars.
Following the loss of independence, the territories of Rus' were divided between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crimean Khanate, which paved the way for the emergence of Cossack communities within the boundaries of modern-day Ukraine. The Cossacks, a militarized society characterized by property rights, privileges, and democratic traditions, played a prominent role during this period. The term "Cossacks" was first documented in 1492 in the correspondence between the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the Crimean Khan, referring to the Ukrainian population of the Grand Duchy. The word "Cossack" means "free, independent person". The Cossacks occupied an elite status within society and enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy from Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, and Ottomans, all of whom held dominion over the territories of present-day Ukraine at different junctures of its tumultuous history.
Within the Cossack social structure, leadership was entrusted to a Hetman and a Kosh Ataman, the latter being akin to the supreme commander of the army, with annual elections held for this position. From 1648 to 1764, the Cossack Hetmanate was a separate state entity. The capital of the Cossacks was the location where the Hetman's residence stood.
The depicted imagery draws inspiration from elements found in St. Elias Church, situated in the village of Subotiv. Notably, this site once served as the residence of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky of Ukraine. Within the image, intertwining motifs depict the Tree of Life, symbolizing the unity of the Cossack family, alongside spears and sabers. The icon's aesthetic references the Cossack seals utilized to authenticate documents and charters during this era.
As a benefactor and patron of the Kyiv College (1615), which later merged with the Lavra Brotherhood School to become the renowned Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. At the Academy, students studied Greek, Latin, and Polish to gain access to the knowledge of both the Orthodox and Catholic worlds. Under his patronage, the restoration of St. Sophia's Church was initiated, with the Italian architect Octaviano Mancini commissioned for the project. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, St. Sophia of Kyiv underwent a transformation in the Ukrainian Baroque style, often referred to as Cossack Baroque due to its development during the Cossack era.
Ukrainian Baroque architecture boasted intricate and opulent designs, with local craftsmen augmenting original Italian concepts with lavish embellishments. The facades and interior walls of buildings featured elaborate sculptures and paintings. The churches followed a tower-tiered layout, crowned with resplendent golden domes. Additionally, Ukrainian Baroque showcased its own distinctive style of drawings and ornaments, which served as reflections of Ukrainian culture and traditions. Floral motifs and elements inspired by nature were prevalent in Ukrainian Baroque, setting it apart from the Italian style.
The depicted icon draws inspiration from the Zaborovsky Gate, an exemplary representation of Ukrainian Baroque. This gate served as the main entrance to the residence of the Metropolitan, situated within the premises of St. Sophia Cathedral. The figured pediment of the gate's facade bears the coat of arms of the customer, Rafail Zaborovsky. Some accounts suggest that Zaborovsky collaborated with the architect Johann Schedel in contributing to the gate's ornamental design and architectural framework. It is worth noting that Petro Mohyla held the position of metropolitan appointed by the King of Poland, while the Russian Empress Elizabeth Petrovna set Zaborovsky. With the decline of the Cossack state, the era of Russian colonization began, shaping the subsequent course of Ukrainian history.
In spite of the Russian Empire's colonial policies and the suppression of the Ukrainian language and literature, the 19th century witnessed the emergence of secret nationalist societies, artistic communities, and intellectual circles that laid the groundwork for the progressive ideas that would flourish in the 20th century. At the turn of the 20th century, Ukrainian territories were divided between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires, with western Ukraine falling under the latter's influence. It was during this time that Ukrainian Modern began to take shape, drawing inspiration from the rich folk traditions of Ukrainian house and church architecture, as well as the achievements of Ukrainian professional architects.
A defining characteristic of this period was the close collaboration between academic artists and those from folk backgrounds. Academic art found inspiration in the intricate embroidery, rural icons, ceramic paintings, and weaving techniques that were inherent to Ukrainian folk culture. Ukrainian Modern stood out from various Art Nouveau variations that emerged worldwide due to its profound and influential integration of popular folk influences.
The icon presented here draws from the plan and paintings of the Poltava Zemstvo, a municipal administration building designed in 1903 by the accomplished architect, artist, and graphic designer Vasyl Krychevskyi. While the Art Nouveau movement manifested in diverse forms across the globe, it was in Ukraine that this style developed a particularly strong and vibrant connection to popular culture and folk traditions.
Amidst the Soviet occupation, Ukrainian architects faced severe limitations in their ability to engage with the world beyond the Iron Curtain. Nevertheless, their creative endeavors gave rise to buildings that were remarkably ahead of their time. This icon draws inspiration from the visionary plan for the Light and Music Theater, designed by the architect, musician, and artist Florian Yuriev, in collaboration with architect Lev Novikov. Completed in 1971, the building, commonly known as the Flying Saucer, serves as the foundation for this depiction. Surrounding the Saucer's plan are intricate patterns derived from Florian Yuriev's artistic works.
Originally intended to house an equally innovative theater, Florian's project envisioned the implementation of his theory of color music. Regrettably, the Soviet government intervened, preventing the realization of this revolutionary vision. Instead, the building was repurposed to accommodate the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information, the KGB archive, and the Communist Party of Ukraine. The cymbal hall within the structure boasts exceptional acoustics, capable of faithfully capturing the entire frequency range of the human voice and musical instruments. It was intended to serve as a concert venue, but, tragically, it was converted into a movie theater within the library.
The Light and Music Theater, a project that never came to fruition, epitomizes the frustrations experienced during the Soviet occupation. Florian Yuriev's life was marred by the repressive machinery of the Soviet regime. Born in Siberia while his parents were in exile, he endured the tragic loss of one of his daughters, killed by the KGB in 1978 due to her desire to emigrate, according to Florian.
Given the weight of the atrocities committed during the Soviet occupation, it is challenging for Ukrainians to embrace the architecture associated with that era. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that many of these structures were conceived by talented individuals who themselves suffered under the oppressive regime. They managed to channel their creativity and vision into their architectural works, despite the prevailing circumstances. Their stories bear testament to the resilience and determination of those who dared to challenge the constraints imposed upon them.
The "Here and Now" point depicts the base of the Independence Stele on Independence Square. It was seen by the whole world during the Revolution of Dignity in 2013-2014 and remained a central place for Ukrainian civil society. After the Revolution of Dignity, Russia attacked Ukraine and annexed Crimea. The annexation of Crimea in March 2014 brought the Ukrainian and Crimean Tatar peoples together in a shared struggle against a common enemy.
The Ukrainian name for Independence Square is Maidan Nezalezhnosti. It`s a combination of the Ukrainian word for "Independence" and Tatar word "Meydan" for square.
Maidan is an originally Persian میدان word for a town square or public gathering place, adopted by various other languages: Arabic مَيْدَان (maydān); Turkish and Crimean Tatar - Meydan.
Independence Square underwent a transformation during its reconstruction in 2001, assuming its modern appearance. Archaeological excavations conducted during this process unearthed the remains of the Lyadsky Gate, a defensive structure dating back to the twelfth century. Maidan, as the square is commonly referred to, serves as a meeting point where history converges with the present. It is a site where history is actively unfolding, witnessing countless new encounters with the "other."
The base of the stele at the icon is adorned with silhouettes of people, while above them rests the coat of arms of Ukraine and the inscription "Volya" (Freedom), executed in style reminiscent of viyz, underscoring the intergenerational continuity and connection between peoples. In one interpretation, the coat of arms of Ukraine itself embodies the concept of "Volya" (Freedom), encapsulating the nation's collective aspiration for individual liberty.
The imagery presented in this icon portrays a profound sense of the present and openness to the world. Independence Square, with its historical significance and ongoing role as a vibrant hub of civic engagement, stands as a testament to the indomitable spirit of the Ukrainian people and their unwavering commitment to freedom.
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Ornella Ostapenko, artist, art director, designer, activist. Co-founder of the NGO Design4Ukraine and the feminist publishing house Creative Women Publishing.
In her works, she combines academic background and experimentation. She practices deep immersion in the socio-political context and explores visual communication and the interaction of institutions of power, gender and violence. In her work, she uses both traditional and experimental and new media.
In 2017, she graduated from the Academy of Management Personnel of Culture and Arts with a degree in design and art. In 2017-2019, she developed visual communication for political and civic campaigns. Due to Russian aggression, in 2022, she was forced to move to Antwerp, Belgium.